Understanding Vulnerability

Abuse can happen to anyone, of any age, but research (NICE, 2026) shows that children who have suffered abuse share some common risk factors . If we are able to identify those factors we are in a better position to not only be alert to signs of abuse, but also to take protective measures and identify who might need extra support.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are any experience between the ages of 0-17 that are potentially traumatic. Experiencing ACEs can increase a child’s vulnerability and have lasting impacts on their life-long health and well-being.  ACEs include, but are not limited to experiencing:

• physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and neglect,

• violence in the home or local community,

• family dysfunction and instability,

• substance misuse,

• the death of a family or friend by suicide, 

• mental health difficulties,

• harm between students,

• and online harms. 

ACEs can disrupt brain development and stress response systems, leading to long-term physical, mental, and social consequences, including difficulty with emotional regulation, a higher likelihood of engaging in risk behaviors, and increased rates of substance abuse, all of which can contribute to further victimization and violence. The impact of ACEs can also be passed down through generations.

Familial Issues that Increase Vulnerability

In familial settings, factors that increase vulnerability are domestic abuse, parental mental ill health, and parental substance misuse.

Domestic Abuse

The United Nations defines domestic abuse (also called "domestic violence" or "intimate partner violence"), as:

“a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. Abuse is physical, sexual, emotional, economic or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that frighten, intimidate, terrorize, manipulate, hurt, humiliate, blame, injure, or wound someone. Domestic abuse can happen to anyone of any race, age, sexual orientation, religion, or gender. It can occur within a range of relationships including couples who are married, living together or dating. Domestic violence affects people of all socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels”

Domestic abuse always has an impact on children. Whilst a child may or may not be physically hurt by the abuse, they will certainly experience emotional harm as a result of witnessing it. This can have a serious effect on their behaviour, brain development, education outcomes, and overall well-being. This harm can even start when the child is still in the womb  (Holt, Buckley and Whelan, 2008; Stanley, 2011; Szilassy et al, 2017). For more information, see the chapter on Domestic and Family Violence.

Affluent Neglect

Whilst in the past it has been commonplace to consider neglect in terms of poverty, schools should also be aware that children from economically affluent families also suffer neglect, now termed ‘affluent neglect’. This can be characterised by absence amid abundance, including pressure to succeed, minimal or lack of supervision, material indulgence, and exposure to drug and alcohol use.

Students who experience affluent neglect may engage in risky behaviour, show a lack of empathy, drug and alcohol misuse, anxiety, poor impulse control, difficulty in making and maintaining relationships, hypervigilance, and withdrawal from social interaction.

Parents may be physically distant or absent, difficult to engage, or emotionally unavailable. Parenting may also be delegated to hired help or other siblings.

For more information, see the chapter on Affluent Neglect.

Parental Mental Health Problems

Many adults who experience mental health difficulties are able to provide safe and nurturing environments for their children. For some children, however, parental mental ill health can mean that they do not experience the support they need, or that they may have to take on extra responsibilities in the family. Parental mental ill-health can also be associated with substance misuse, with domestic abuse and neglect, including affluent neglect. Children may be concerned about stigma associated with parental mental ill-health, particularly in cultures where this is not recognised.

Mental health concerns may also be associated with other stress factors such as isolation, financial issues, relationship breakdown/divorce, and pregnancy.

Parental Substance Misuse

The term parental substance misuse refers to parents who have problematic use of drugs or alcohol, which affects their ability to meet their children’s needs. This can be through a deficit of the following:

• practical caring skills,

• perceptions of risk, 

• attention to basic physical needs 

• adequate supervision 

• control of emotion.

All of this can impact the attachment to or separation from a child. Children in households experiencing any of the above issues may have extra responsibilities, be isolated from other caring adults or try to avoid being at home, thus making them more vulnerable to the attention of other adults or children who might harm them.

Children of internationally mobile families may find themselves isolated from wider family support and trusted adults. Children may also find themselves exposed to criminal activity.

Individual Characteristics that Increase Vulnerability

Language and communication difficulties

Children who have language and communication difficulties may find it difficult to share their worries or concerns with an adult. They may not have the language to do so, or adults may not have the skills, equipment or resources to help them communicate with the child, and they may rely on the adult to report abuse.

Students with additional physical needs

Students who have a physical disability or impairment may have additional needs for support and, in some cases, for intimate care, such as using the bathroom or cleaning themselves.

Adults may make assumptions about symptoms normally associated with physical harm, such as bruising are related to the health condition, or misuse of equipment, and not realise that a child is being abused.

Students with mental health issues

Students who have additional mental health needs will often require specific support from student support teams to maintain positive mental health. Unfortunately, having further mental health concerns can also make students more vulnerable to being targeted for abuse. Due to their high level of need, adults of concern may target them for grooming to isolate them from other support networks. For further information, see the chapter on Promoting Mental Health and Well-being.

Parenting a child with mental health concerns can be challenging and create friction in the home, which can also lead to intra-familial abuse. 

Depending on the specific mental health concern, schools should also be aware of the heightened risk of self-harm, disordered eating, and suicidal ideation.

LGBTQ+ students

LGBTQ+ students face similar risks as all other children and young people, but they are at greater risk of certain types of abuse, in particular identity-based harm. LGBTQ+ students can experience this from their peers, their teachers and their families and as a result can be further isolated from the support they need. Research (Barnardo’s and Fox, 2016; McGeeney et al, 2017; Xu and Zheng, 2014) has also shown that due to their increased isolation and vulnerability, LGBTQ+ students experience a higher risk of, sexual abuse and exploitation, both in person and online.

In some jurisdictions, being LGBTQ+ can be illegal or present further risk if reported. Identity-based harm can then be more difficult to report due to laws, cultural norms and fear of reprisals. Students in these contexts face further barriers to openly exploring their identity and talking about any harm they experience that could cause them to be ‘outed’ in their community.

Neuro-diversity

Neuro-diverse students experience additional vulnerabilities, including communication, social isolation, and behavioural challenges that can mask that abuse has occurred, or make them more vulnerable to being targeted for abuse. Neuro-diverse students may have difficulty expressing themselves, understanding or interpreting others, and understanding social context. Neuro-diverse students may not recognise or adequately identify when they are at risk, are being exploited or are in a harmful situation such as being groomed. Increased experiences of social isolation and the need to belong may also make them more susceptible to radicalisation or gangs.

Neuro-diverse students may also present challenging behaviours, including impulsivity and have complex needs which can result in neglect and burnout for the adults caring for or working with them. Inappropriate school responses to these behaviours can also result in higher exclusion and suspension rates in schools and lead to increased educational isolation. 

Students from minority ethnic communities 

Children (and families) who are from minority, ethnic communities may experience more identity-based harm. They may experience further isolation from their communities and may be vulnerable to safeguarding and child protection issues for a variety of reasons. These can include cultural insensitivity and unconscious bias, microaggressions, misunderstanding cultural behaviours and practices, not understanding or recognising racism based trauma and its impact.

Students from conflict-affected countries, asylum seekers and refugees

Children who experience conflict will almost certainly have experienced a high degree of trauma. Exposure to such traumatic incidents that are associated with conflict and displacement can bring a higher degree of risk of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other trauma related mental health concerns. These can also affect a student's capacity to identify risk and lead them to both over, and under, identify risk in any given situation. Students may also not have the language they need to effectively communicate their needs and their behaviour may not immediately be evidently linked to the trauma they have experienced. Depending on their cultural and familial norms, students who have experienced traumatic events may have been told explicitly not to talk about it as assimilation into a new international school culture may be their parent’s priority in order to keep them safe.